Each grant decreases dissolved oxygen deficits by 0.7 percentage points, and decreases the probability that downstream waters are not fishable by 0.7 percentage points. Adding rental units in column (3) barely changes this estimate. These effects grow in magnitude over the first 10 years, are statistically significant in this period, and remain negative for about 30years after a grant. Data cover 19622001. A few points are worth noting. Online Appendix E.2 discusses how cost-effectiveness numbers change with alternative estimates of crowding out.22. Grant project costs include federal grant amount and required local capital expenditure. They give similar qualitative conclusions as the main results, though exact point estimates vary. Year-by-year trends for the other pollutants in the main analysisthe share of waters that are not swimmable, BOD, fecal coliforms, and TSSshow similar patterns (Online Appendix FigureIII). Row 8 equals row 1 divided by 30 times row 6. Other possible general equilibrium channels describe reasons the effects of cleaning up an entire river system could differ from summing up the effects of site-specific cleanups. Most of these estimates are small and actually negative. These graphs also suggest that existing evaluations of the Clean Water Act, which typically consist of national trend reports based on data from after 1972, may reflect forces other than the Clean Water Act. Secure .gov websites use HTTPS Column (2) includes plants in the continental United States with latitude and longitude data. Leads decrease of about 10% a year may be related to air pollution regulations, such as prohibiting leaded gasoline. Column (3) includes all plants and grants with minimum required data (e.g., grants linked to the exact treatment plant even if without latitude or longitude data) and assumes all plants have 25 miles of rivers downstream. This chart shows the health benefits of the Clean Air Act programs that reduce levels of fine particles and . Grants and population are both skewed, so large shares of both are in the top decile. 1251 et seq. Notes. TableV analyzes how Clean Water Act grants affect housing. Water quality improvement and resilient infrastructure Not less than $650 million (increased by $100 million over 2020 proposal) wastewater infrastructure projects municipal stormwater projects Municipal grants for stormwater with green infrastructure Agricultural nutrient pollution Harmful Algal Bloom abatement Online Appendix TableVII investigates heterogeneity in measured benefits and costs; Online Appendix E.3 discusses the results. We impute these values from a panel regression of log mean home values on year fixed effects and tract fixed effects. We now compare the ratio of a grants effect on housing values (its measured benefits) to its costs. Connected dots show yearly values, dashed lines show 95% confidence interval, and 1962 is the reference category. Surface waters, by contrast, are typically filtered through a drinking water treatment plant before people drink them. Point sources are discrete conveyances such as pipes or man-made ditches. As we approach the formal 50 th Anniversary of the Clean Water Act (CWA) next month, the Association of Clean Water Administrators (ACWA), which represents state clean water regulatory agencies, has partnered with EPA's Office of Water to create a " Clean Water Act Success Stories Map ." This early version of the CWA left sanitation planning up to the surgeon general, and allowed the Federal Works Administration to help local and state governments with prevention and cleanup efforts. Effects of Clean Water Act Grants on Water Pollution. A .gov website belongs to an official government organization in the United States. Letting States Do the Dirty Work: State Responsibility for Federal Environmental Regulation, Transboundary Spillovers and Decentralization of Environmental Policies, Water-Quality Trends in the Nations Rivers. This implies that coefficients in the graph can be interpreted as the pollution level in a given year, relative to the pollution level in the period before the treatment plant received a grant. Implemented in response to growing public awareness and concern for controlling water pollution in the U.S., the Clean Water Act followed the establishment of the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) and the passage of the Clean Air Act in 1970, and preceded the Endangered Species Act of 1973, making it part of a period of landmark . In 2020, the Clean Air Act Amendments will prevent over 230,000 early deaths. *The Clean Water Program, which calls for $790 million for municipal-treatment improvements, nonpoint-source-control projects, aquatic-habitat restoration and implementation of management plans. Market-based instruments are believed to be more cost-effective than alternatives. Adler Robert W., Landman Jessica C., Cameron Diane M.. Angrist Joshua D., Pischke Jrn-Steffen, Artell Janne, Ahtiainen Heini, Pouta Eija, , Boscoe Francis P., Henry Kevin A., Zdeb Michael S., , Carson Richard T., Mitchell Robert Cameron, , Currie Janet, Zivin Joshua Graff, Meckel Katherine, Neidell Matthew, Schlenker Wolfram, , Deschenes Olivier, Greenstone Michael, Shapiro Joseph S., , Faulkner H., Green A., Pellaumail K., Weaver T., , Gianessi Leonard P., Peskin Henry M., , Jeon Yongsik, Herriges Joseph A., Kling Catherine L., Downing John, , Kahn Matthew E., Li Pei, Zhao Kaxuan, , Keiser David A., Kling Catherine L., Shapiro Joseph S., , Kling Catherine L., Phaneuf Daniel J., Zhao Jinhua, , Leggett Christopher G., Bockstael Nancy E., , Lipscomb Molly, Mobarak Ahmed Mushfiq, , Muehlenbachs Lucija, Spiller Elisheba, Timmins Christopher, , Muller Nicholas Z., Mendelsohn Robert, , Muller Nicholas Z., Mendelsohn Robert, Nordhaus William, , Olmstead Sheila M., Muehlenbachs Lucija A., Shih Jhih-Shyang, Chu Ziyan, Krupnick Alan J., , Peiser Richard B., Smith Lawrence B., , Poor P. Joan, Boyle Kevin J., Taylor Laura O., Bouchard Roy, , Smith Richard A., Alexander Richard B., Wolman M. Gordon, , Smith V. Kerry, Wolloh Carlos Valcarcel, , Steinwender Astrid, Gundacker Caludia, Wittmann Karl J., , Wu Junjie, Adams Richard M., Kling Catherine L., Tanaka Katsuya, , Oxford University Press is a department of the University of Oxford. Second, because the difference-in-differences specification used for home values does not use upstream areas as a counterfactual, it involves the stronger identifying assumption that areas with more and fewer grants would have had similar home price trends in the absence of the grants. This tells us little about the Clean Water Acts effects, however, since its investments may take time to affect water pollution, expanded during the 1970s, and may be effective even if not obvious from a national time series. The gradual effect of the grants is unsurprising since, as mentioned earlier, the EPA estimates that it took 2 to 10 years after a grant was received for construction to finish. Most analyses of recent U.S. water quality regulation count little direct benefit from improving human health (Lyon and Farrow 1995; Freeman 2000; USEPA 2000a; Olmstead 2010).29. The point estimate implies that each grant decreases TSS by 1%, though this is imprecise. In years before a grant, the coefficients are statistically indistinguishable from zero, have modest magnitude, and have no clear trend (FigureIII). Estimates without the basin year controls are more positive but also more sensitive to specification, which is one indication that the specification of equation (6) provides sharper identification. \end{equation*}. Standard errors are clustered by watershed. Finally, we average this ratio across plants in each county. None of these ratios exceeds 1, though they are closer to 1 than are the values in TableVI. We estimate many sensitivity analyses, including restricting to high-quality subsamples of the data, adding important controls, weighting by population, and many others. Notes. One such channel involves substitutioncleaning up part of a river in an area with many dirty rivers might have different value than cleaning up a river in an area with many clean rivers. Online Appendix TableIII shows these results and Online Appendix E.1 explains each. We discuss a range of pass-through estimates including these for cost-effectiveness and cost-benefit analysis. Dollar values in |${\$}$|2014 millions. A review of 10 U.S. studies found pass-through estimates between 0.25 and 1.06 (Hines and Thaler 1995). The historic law was designed to protect all of our waters - from the smallest streams to the mightiest rivers - from pollution and destruction. Finally, we note one similarity between air and water pollution that may be relevant to policy design. Most of these alternative approaches have similar sign, magnitude, and precision as the main results. Flint potentially could have prevented these problems by adding corrosion inhibitors (like orthophosphate), which are used in many cities (including the Detroit water) that Flint previously used, at low cost. Our interpretation is that once the Clean Water Act began, cities became less likely to spend municipal funds on wastewater treatment capital. This map assumes the same hedonic price function and reflects spatial heterogeneity in housing unit density.25 The map shows that the ratio of measured benefits to costs is larger in more populated counties. Analyses of the Clean Air Act relying solely on hedonic estimates generally have smaller cost-benefit ratios; the EPAs benefit numbers for air pollution rely heavily on estimated mortality impacts. Twenty Years of the Clean Water Act: Has U.S. Water Quality Improved? Alternatively, the most distant travelers might be marginal. Connected dots show yearly values, dashed lines show 95% confidence interval. The increases are small and statistically insignificant in most years. We use the following equation to assess year-by-year changes in water pollution: \begin{equation}
For the few governments that do not report when their fiscal year ends, we assume they report by calendar year. A second general equilibrium channel is that the hedonic price function may have shifted. The share of waters that are fishable has grown by 12 percentage points since the Clean Water Act. But Supreme Court decisions in 2001 and 2006 threw protections into question for 60 percent of our nation's streams and millions of acres of wetlands. Any opinions and conclusions expressed herein are those of the authors and do not necessarily represent the views of the U.S. Census Bureau. It is possible that areas with more pollution data may be of greater interest; for example, FigureI, Panel C shows more monitoring sites in more populated areas. It may be useful to highlight differences in how the Clean Air and Clean Water Acts answer four important questions about environmental regulation. Identification from a national time series is difficult, since other national shocks like the 19731975 and early 1980s recessions, high inflation and interest rates, and the OPEC crisis make the 1960s a poor counterfactual for the 1970s and 1980s.
Clean Air Act Essays | ipl.org The basis of the CWA was enacted in 1948 and was called the Federal Water Pollution Control Act, but the Act was significantly .
A blueprint for clean water everywhere, for everyone Misperception would be less important if most benefits of surface water quality accrue through recreation or aesthetics, since failing to perceive water pollution through any means would mean its effects on recreational demand are limited. \end{equation}, Political Internalization of Economic Externalities and Environmental Policy, What Are Cities Worth? Other sources note that these time series trends are consistent with aggregate crowding out (Jondrow and Levy 1984; CBO 1985). A fourth question involves health. See main text for description of dwelling and baseline covariates. These studies ask: The grants we study actually subsidize the adoption of pollution control equipment, which is a common policy that has undergone little empirical economic analysis. The basis of the CWA was enacted in 1948 and was called the Federal Water Pollution Control Act, but the Act was significantly reorganized and expanded in 1972. \end{align}, To estimate the pass-through of Clean Water Act grants to local expenditure, we regress cumulative municipal sewerage capital expenditures, \begin{equation}
Ninety-five percent confidence regions are in brackets. The water can be sea water, sewage water or any other dirty water. Pass-through of Grants to Municipal Sewerage Capital Spending. The analysis includes plants that never received a grant (which have all event study indicators 1[Gp,y = 1] equal to 0), plants that received a single grant (which in any observation have only a single event indicator equal to 1), and plants that received more than one grant (which in any observation can have several event indicators equal to 1). In 2020 the EPA narrowed the definition of 'Waters of the United States', significantly limiting wetland protection under the Clean Water Act. Season controls are a cubic polynomial in day of year. Finally, we interpret our pass-through estimates cautiously because they reflect only 198 cities, do not use upstream waters as a comparison group, and reflect pass-through of marginal changes in investment, rather than the entire Clean Water Act. The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) and the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers (Corps) final " Clean Water Rule " issued on Wednesday reduces the agencies' jurisdiction to protect waters that have been covered under the Clean Water Act (CWA) since the 1970s. This is potentially informative because increased taxes, sewer fees, or changes in other municipal expenditures are likely to be concentrated in the municipal authority managing the treatment plant, whereas the change in water quality is relevant for areas further downstream. Online Appendix FigureV shows the effect of a grant by distance downstream from a treatment plant; few data are available to estimate effects separately for each five-mile bin along the river, and estimates are correspondingly less precise. The ratio of the change in housing values to federal capital costs in columns (2)(4) of TableVI ranges from 0.8 to 0.9; the ratio of the change in housing values to the sum of federal capital costs and operating costs (but excluding local capital costs) in these columns is around 0.3. Fecal coliforms are approximately log-normally distributed, and BOD and TSS are somewhat skewed (Online Appendix FigureI). The positive coefficients in the richer specifications of columns (2) through (4) are consistent with increases in home values, though most are statistically insignificant. The 1.4 ratio and the 34-mile calculation from the previous paragraph both use survey weights. Ignoring such a large source of pollution can make aggregate abatement more costly. After 1990, the trends approach zero. The curve 2 describes the bid function for another type of consumer. We find weak evidence that local residents value these grants, though estimates of increases in housing values are generally smaller than costs of the grant projects. Finally, we can recalculate the ratios in TableVI considering only subsets of costs. We report both the double-difference and triple-difference estimators for both outcomes, and obtain qualitatively similar conclusions. These estimates are within a standard deviation of one, so fail to reject the hypothesis that the municipal wastewater investment exactly equals the cost listed in the grant project data.20. Effects of Clean Water Act Grants on Housing Demand. The hedonic price schedule provides information about willingness to pay for amenity j because it reflects the points of tangency between consumer bid curves and firm offer curves. It remains one of our nation's most vital safeguards for the health and safety of our communities and our environment. Hines (1967) describes state and local control of water pollution in the 1960s, which typically included legislation designating regulated waters and water quality standards, a state pollution control board, and enforcement powers against polluters including fines and incarceration. Third, if some grant expenditures were lost to rents (e.g., corruption), then those expenditures represent transfers and not true economic costs. Panels A and B reflect the classic hedonic model, with fixed housing stock. Standard errors are clustered by watershed. Online Appendix E.3 discusses interpretations of our housing estimates under alternative pass-through numbers. "Clean Water Act" became the Act's common name with amendments in 1972. If approved, it will protect clean drinking water, upgrade water infrastructure, preserve open space and family farms, fight climate change, and keep communities safe from extreme weather,. Analysis includes homes within a given distance of downstream river segments. Row 4 is calculated following the method described in Online Appendix B.4. Our topic is clean water and sanitation. We calculate the present value of rental payouts as |$rentalPayout\frac{1-(1+r)^{-n}}{r}$|, where rentalPayout is the change in total annual rents due to the grants, r = 0.0785 is the interest rate, and n = 30 is the duration of the benefits in years. We considered a fourth repository, the Sustaining the Earths Watersheds: Agricultural Research Data System (STEWARDS), managed by the USDA. None of these subsets of grants considered has a ratio of measured benefits to costs above one, though many of the confidence regions cannot reject a ratio of 1. First, the analysis is based on only 198 cities. Smith and Wolloh (2012) study one measure of pollution (dissolved oxygen) in lakes beginning after the Clean Water Act and use data from one of the repositories we analyze. This implies that the marginal implicit price of an amenity at a given point on the hedonic price schedule equals the marginal willingness to pay of the consumer who locates on that point of the hedonic price schedule. Objective versus Subjective Assessments of Environmental Quality of Standing and Running Waters in a Large City, 1967 Census of Manufactures: Water Use in Manufacturing, National Water Quality Inventory. The Clean Air Act is a United States federal law designed to control air pollution on a national level.
PDF Clean Water Act and Pollutant Total Maximum Daily Loads (TMDLs) 2011; Poor etal. We thank the editor, Larry Katz, along with four referees, Joe Altonji, Josh Angrist, David Autor, Richard Carson, Lucas Davis, Esther Duflo, Eli Fenichel, Michael Greenstone, Catherine Kling, Arik Levinson, Matt Kotchen, Amanda Kowalski, Rose Kwok, Drew Laughland, Neal Mahone, Enrico Moretti, Bill Nordhaus, Sheila Olmstead, Jordan Peccia, Nick Ryan, Daniel Sheehan, Kerry Smith, Richard Smith, Rich Sweeney, Reed Walker, and participants in many seminars for excellent comments; Randy Becker, Olivier Deschenes, Michael Greenstone, and Jon Harcum for sharing data; Elyse Adamic, Todd Campbell, Adrian Fernandez, Ryan Manucha, Xianjun Qiu, Patrick Reed, Vivek Sampathkumar, Daisy Sun, Trevor Williams, and Katherine Wong for excellent research assistance; and Bob Bastian and Andy Stoddard for explaining details of the Clean Water Act. For instance, the Clean Water Act's grantmaking program has cost the U.S. government about $650 billion total, or about $1.5 million per year to make one mile of river fishable. One is to estimate hedonic regressions excluding housing units in the same city as the wastewater treatment plant. We now turn to estimate the cost-effectiveness of these grants. We also report event study graphs of outcomes relative to the year when a facility receives a grant: \begin{align}
The ultimate entity responsible for local capital costs and operation and maintenance costs is ambiguous because local governments may receive other payments from state or federal governments to help cover these costs. Q_{icy}=\sum _{\tau =1963}^{\tau =2001}\alpha _{\tau }1[y_{y}=\tau ]+X_{icy}^{^{\,\,\prime }}\beta +\delta _{i}+\epsilon _{icy}. We also explored estimates controlling for city-year population or city-year municipal revenue. People breathe the air quality where they live, and relocating to another airshed or some other defenses against air pollution are costly (Deschenes, Greenstone, and Shapiro 2017). Q_{pdy} & =\sum _{\tau =-10}^{\tau =25}\gamma _{\tau }1[G_{p,y+\tau }=1]d_{d}+X_{pdy}^{^{\,\,\prime }}\beta +\eta _{pd}+\eta _{py}+\eta _{dwy}+\epsilon _{pdy}. 3 Pages. Decent Essays. 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